Turns and Level

III. Step One: Teaching How To Master Turns & Level Flight

Objective: To get the student to a point where they can keep the airplane in the air with no help from you. Though the plane may still be "flying the student" to some extent at the end of this step, at least they should be to the point that you are not constantly fearing for the airplane as they fly.

We assume at this point that the training airplane has had a trim flight and any necessary control surface adjustments have been made. We also assume that the beginner understands the basics of aerodynamics and flight, including a knowledge of the influence each control surface has on the airplane. Finally, we assume that the beginner understands the rules (especially the safety related rules) of your particular flying field.

The time it takes the student to master this step varies dramatically. Believe it or not, I have had students do so on their very first flight. But it usually takes longer. Regardless of how long it takes, students should not get the feeling that they are in a race to see how long it takes to master any step to flying.

[Let me digress a moment. When it comes to time, beginners tend to think they should master flying their very first time out. When they don't, or whenever they think their not progressing fast enough, they tend to get down on themselves, especially if another beginner seems to be progressing faster. Part of your job will be to keep them from getting discouraged. Make it clear that everyone picks up the hobby at a different pace. Relate the problems you had when you learned to fly. Be sure their having fun. (If it's fun, who cares how long it takes?) Tell them if they push too hard, the problems they're having only get worse.]

Begin on the ground by explaining the basics of turning. Explain that turning is basically a three step procedure:

• 1) bank with the ailerons,
  2) maintain the turn with up elevator
  3) level out with the opposite aileron.

Demonstrate turning with hand movements as well as on the stick of the transmitter. Explain that even trainer planes tend to be quite responsive and that only a little motion of stick will be sufficient to maneuver the plane. While the student cannot really get a feel for flying while on the ground, you must prepare them for what to expect in the air. By the way, we're assuming here that the student understands the basics of aerodynamics and flight. This, of course, includes an understanding of what effect each control surface has on the airplane! What about the rudder? - If the plane has ailerons, I'd recommend having the beginner add the rudder the rudder when turning after they manage level flight. While you may eventually wish to teach the beginner rudder coordinated turns, I find that this tends to substantially complicate the learning process, especially early on. If you intend to teach rudder coordinated turns, I'd recommend waiting until the student is well along in step two before you introduce this more complicated turning method.

The first flight On the student's first flight, begin by demonstrating a turn. Try to get the plane in an attitude where the student can see both the plane and the transmitter to see the small amount of control you are giving (hold up the transmitter to show them). After entering the turn, stress how important it is to maintain the turn with up elevator. Also demonstrate how a trainer airplane tends to self correct, meaning minor aileron corrections may be required to hold the bank angle. Finally demonstrate exiting a turn with opposite aileron control. You may want to demonstrate this in both directions, stressing the three step nature of turning - bank with aileron - hold the turn with up elevator - straighten with opposite aileron.

The beginner's first few attempts - We're assuming you're using the trainer system. Begin by getting the plane into a perfect turning position. You'll need to make it as simple as possible for the beginner's first few tries. I like to begin at a safe altitude by aiming the plane toward one of the near corners of the field (left or right). This way, soon after the student takes control (by your holding the trainer button on the master transmitter), they will immediately begin the turn. Always have them turn the plane in a direction away from the pits (turning right on your left side and turning left on your right side).

It is quite likely that the beginner will immediately roll the plane over on its back, so be ready for anything as you give them control! Again, you control when to take over. For the beginner's first few attempts, you will probably have to retake control soon after you push the trainer button. Don't be afraid of hurting feelings by retaking control! As soon as the student is in trouble and you retake control, right the problem and set the plane up again for another turn attempt (I like to alternate corners of the field, forcing them to practice left and right turns equally).

[Again let me digress. As the instructor, you set the rules for when you retake control. Early on, I tell beginners that there will be times when they may be in control of the airplane, yet I'll still retake control. The first time has to do with the flight line. If it even appears that the student might eventually cross it and fly over the pits, I retake control. While it is possible that the student may have been able to continue flying without crossing the flight line, I don't take any chances where safety is concerned, especially on the beginner's first few flights. Second, I set an altitude limitation. While learning how to turn, beginners tend to lose altitude in each turn they make. When the plane descends past a certain altitude, I retake control, even though they may be doing rather well (this also gives them the goal of keeping the airplane above my cut-off point). Third I set a distance limitation. If the plane gets so far away that it becomes difficult to see, I retake control. You may also want to set a similar rule based on your own comfort level. Tell the student that if they get the plane into an attitude you don't feel comfortable with, you'll retake control. This may not be caused by a problem or mistake on their part; you simply don't want the plane to get into an attitude from which you cannot recover!]

Though you have explained the three steps to turning on the ground and the student may have seemed to understand quite well, when in the air, the student will probably have problems remembering these three seemingly simple steps. Also, they will not be able to give the correct amount of aileron and elevator to make good turns. For these reasons, you will probably have to talk them through their first few turns. Don't be afraid to talk to the student while they fly (though be careful to stick to the point so as not to get them confused). Here is an example conversation (though very one-sided) I would have with a student on their first few turning attempts. It truly typifies the kind of talking you will be doing to your own students. At this point, I have just set the plane up for the student to make a gradual left turn when I push the trainer button to give the student control of the plane.

• "OK. I've set you up to make a nice gentle left turn. Give a little left aileron to get the turn started and be ready to bring in up elevator. See that left wingtip drop. That's it. Not to much now or you'll have to give some right. That's it. You'll need some up elevator now. Waited just a little too long to bring in the up. See that nose drop a bit. Hold the turn with the up. Nose is still dropping. You need more up. That's it. Hold the turn until your heading back toward those trees. Good. Remember, you're turning left. Be ready to straighten with right. OK. Begin to straighten. Not too much now or you'll over-control. Good. Now let's try a right turn..."

Be careful with how much talking you do. Stick to the main points of the step. In this case, bank with aileron, hold the turn with up, and straighten with opposite aileron. I admit that I have a tendency to say too much. I'll notice the student doing something or another that may be causing problems for something coming down the road and I have trouble resisting the urge to talk about it while the student is flying. Save any discussions that are not directly related to the subject at hand for until the plane is on the ground.

That brings up a good point. After each flight, be sure to review the flight with the student. Stress those areas where progress has been made and be sure to offer praise. For those things the student is having problems with, you now have the student's full attention and can offer advice and constructive criticisms.

One more point about talking to students as they fly. While it's good to talk to help them get comfortable with a new flying technique, you'll want to be sure that the student is not just mimicking your instructions and confirm that the student truly understands the maneuver you are teaching. Once they are following your instructions and turning quite well, keep your mouth shut for a while and just watch them fly. If they continue to do well, they truly understand the maneuver you have been teaching.

Step by step If the student is having problems making turns (as most will), concentrate on each step independently. Begin by making sure they can give the correct amount of aileron control to get the desired bank angle. Beginners have the tendency to give too much control, rolling the plane to a very severe bank angle. You'll probably have to keep stressing how little stick control they need to give. Make sure they understand the relationship of bank angle to the plane's tendency to lose altitude. The more bank angle, the more the tendency to lose altitude quickly.

Once they can set the correct bank angle, concentrate on having them maintain the turn with the elevator. Make sure they are making gradual, level turns, neither gaining nor losing altitude (though gaining is always better than losing). Stress the relationship of bank angle to elevator. The more severe the bank angle, the more up elevator required to hold altitude (and the tighter the turn). Also stress that it is important to begin giving up elevator as soon as they see the wingtip begin to drop to the desired bank angle. Beginners tend to wait too long, and the plane loses altitude before entering the turn. This is somewhat difficult to master, because if they pull in up too early, the plane simply climb (eventually stalling). I call this problem wishing the plane around with the up. Beginners also have the tendency of forgetting which way is up. The elevator stick may seem backwards to a person who has never been exposed to any form of flying. Stress that it's just like a full scale aircraft. Pulling back on the stick makes the plane go up. If they hold the transmitter more horizontally, it may help them remember this.

As they progress further in this step, stress the importance of maintaining the bank angle with aileron control throughout the turn, especially if they're flying a very self correcting trainer plane with a flat bottom wing and a lot of dihedral. Have them practice this by making full 360 degree turns. Have them fly the plane in a full gradual circle. Even a plane that is not very self correcting will require minor adjustments of aileron to maintain the correct bank angle. Once they master the 360 turn in one direction, have them practice it in the other. Also, once they can perform one 360 degree turn, have them continue the turn several times, making several 360 degree turns consecutively. This practice forces the beginner to maintain a gradual turn for a long period of time.

Finally, have them concentrate on exiting the turn by applying opposite aileron until the plane is flying level again. The most common problem here is that the beginner forgets which way the plane is turning and they attempt to straighten by applying the wrong aileron direction to exit. This, of course, sends the plane into an even sharper turn. As the instructor, you must be prepared for this mistake every time the beginner ends a turn! The lower to the ground the airplane is, the more important it is that you be ready.

There are several things you can do to help the student with this problem. One way (that many experienced fliers do not like) is to have the student physically turn with the plane. If they are facing the same direction as the airplane, it will be easier to determine which way to exit the turn. Another way is to have the student keep saying (out loud) which way they are turning throughout the turn. They will then know which way to exit the turn. Another common problem for beginners exiting turns is they continue to hold the up elevator too long. This of course, will make the airplane climb at the end of the turn, and possibly cause a stall. They must practice until they can exit the turn at the same vertical attitude as entered.

Watch out for two more things. First, since you are teaching turns in a step-by-step manner, you must be sure the beginner is not simply mimicking the stick movements you ask for. They must truly understand the turning process. By forcing them to make turns in both directions and in several different positions in the sky, and by keeping quiet and making them turn by themselves (after you think they understand), you should be able to confirm whether the beginner truly understands turning.

Second, beginners tend to turn much to severely. They bank hard, pull in a lot of up, and level out quickly. While their turns may look rather well, you must force them to turn gradually. When they turn so radically, it will be difficult (if not impossible) for them to come out of the turn on a predictable heading, which will be very important in step two to flying. If the beginner is having problems, it doesn't hurt to point out that turning gradually is the most difficult way to turn. Though they must master gradual turns, once they do, they can look forward to learning the split-S and Imillman turns, which are much easier turns to perform.

Right and left Right from the very start, be sure that the student practices left and right turns equally. With no intervention from you, most students will fall into the habit of making turns in only one direction. It has been my experience that beginners tend to favor left turns. Force them to practice turns in both directions.

Most beginners find it more difficult to make right turns. They may complain that the wingtip drops more quickly and more severely (along with the nose of the plane) when making right turns. They also complain that the plane tends to fall further into the turn while holding the turn with up elevator. This is related to how much engine thrust the plane has (possibly too much right thrust). Though some of this tendency can be removed by removing some right thrust, it also makes an excellent time to stress how small corrections must be made with ailerons during each turn. It also makes a good time to have them practice full 360 degree turns in both directions.

What about planes that don't have ailerons? Though you don't see them as much any more, there are trainer planes that have only rudder, elevator, and throttle. Believe it or not, these planes fly quite similarly to planes with ailerons. As you apply rudder, the wingtip will still drop. You still hold the turn with up elevator. And you still exit by applying the opposite rudder. You will notice, however, that the nose of rudder controlled airplanes tends to drop more severely in turns. Be sure you've practiced flying a rudder controlled airplane before you try to help someone for the first time. It takes some getting used to.

Throttle setting: Most model airplanes are overpowered, including trainers. This means you usually won't need full throttle to keep the plane in the air. As you know, planes tend to be much more responsive at full throttle. For most of our practice flying, keep the throttle at a setting that ensures docile performance. As the beginner progresses, be sure they can handle the airplane at any throttle setting.

Wind and turning: Ideally, the wind will be calm during the beginners first few flights. However, do not consider the beginner competent with this first step until they have flown in wind of at least five miles per hour. They will find that wind presents its own problems to turning smoothly. It will appear that the plane will be sluggish when turning into the wind, while quite responsive when turning in a direction with the wind. This of course, means that different stick control amounts will be necessary with every turn. The best advice I can give is to tell beginners to fly what they see. If they give a little aileron control and the plane does not respond, they simply have to give more. Getting the student used to this idea early is very helpful. As we start slowing the airplane down for landing practice, this tendency for response to become sluggish will be compounded.

Ballooning tendencies: Most trainers have the tendency to climb with speed, especially trainers with flat bottom wing design. The faster they go, the more they want to climb. While some of this tendency can be overcome with engine down thrust, engine speed is only one factor that influences the plane's speed. As a beginner makes their first few turns, it is likely that the plane will lose altitude. As it loses altitude it picks up speed. When the beginner exits the turn, the plane will have the natural tendency to climb, due to the increased speed. I call this tendency ballooning, since the plane resembles a hot air balloon as it rises for no apparent reason. Be ready to explain this tendency. To avoid it, the beginner must make level turns. If the plane does not lose altitude in a turn, it will not pick up speed, and it will not climb at the completion of the turn.

The beginner will also notice a tendency for ballooning whenever the airplane is turned into a high wind. To the airplane, it is just as if airspeed increased by the wind speed. The plane will tend to rise. This can be corrected (to some extent) by applying down elevator as the plane comes into the wind.

Try not to let the student get too bogged down with trying to overcome ballooning. Though it may seem like the plane is doing something wrong, it is just a natural tendency for trainer planes. I have seen students (and instructors) waste entire flying sessions adding down thrust to the engine and shims under the back of the wing in attempts to keep the plane from ballooning. While some marginal improvements may be made, in the end, the plane will still balloon when it picks up speed. It is much more important that the student concentrate on practicing to make level turns. Try to have them accept the fact that trainers tend to balloon. Tell them that their next airplane (probably a sportier plane) will not have this tendency. Demonstrate this on your own sport airplane.

You know they're getting close when... - One signal that the beginner is getting close to the completion of this step is that they begin to complain that the airplane always seems to climb. Be sure to praise them at this point! They have overcome their tendency to lose altitude in every turn. Now it will be a relatively simple matter of flattening out their turns. They can bank slightly more severely with the aileron or not give quite as much up elevator to hold the turn.

When the plane gets too high, I simply have them cut the throttle a few notches and continue flying. Eventually the plane will descend. Once a comfortable altitude is reached, I have them increase the throttle a little and concentrate on making more level turns. By the way, I like to have beginners control the decent of the plane by themselves (instead of retaking control) since it makes an excellent time for the beginner to start manipulating the throttle.

When are they finished with this step? -Generally speaking, when the student can keep the airplane in the air for a whole flight with no coaching from you, they have mastered this step. Be sure, however, the beginner can turn left and right equally well. It is quite common that a beginner becomes much more comfortable with one way or the other, and ends up constantly setting up the plane to turn in the comfortable direction. Force them to practice turning in the direction they feel least comfortable with!

IV. Step Two: Teaching How To Set And Hold Headings

The objective: To get the student to the point where they can fly the plane under complete control at all times (in the air).

If the student truly mastered the first step to flying, this step should be relatively easy to master. You can begin stressing the importance of being able to set and hold headings even during step one. As they begin to make level turns (even after their first successful attempt), stress how important it is to come out of the turn in a predictable direction. This will be very important during the setup and final approach for landing!

Setting headings: By setting a heading, we mean the student must be able to exit each turn in a predictable manner. By holding a heading, we mean the student must be able to keep the plane flying in the headed direction (without wandering) for as long a period as required. Again, at the completion of step one, the beginner may be able to keep the plane in the air, but the plane may be flying the pilot to some extent. The beginner may still be reacting to the airplane instead of making the airplane react to stick movements.

Explain that the key to setting precise headings is knowing when to begin exiting the turn with the opposite aileron. The smoother and more gradual the turn the easier this will be. At what point opposite aileron must be applied depends on the severity of the turn. The more gradual the turn, the sooner the (equally gradual) opposite aileron is applied, and the easier it is to smoothly exit the turn on the desired heading. As mentioned in part one, beginners tend to turn much too severely, making it very difficult to exit turns precisely.

To practice, I begin by making the student fly figure eights. Since it is easier to make turns in a direction away (so the plane never points to the pilot), I have them start by making left turns on our right side and right turns on our left side. I stress the importance of flying much more precisely. Since we fly on a rectangular shaped flying field, I use each corner of the field as the target heading for each turn. The student is told to maintain each turn until the desired heading is reached. They are to come out of the turn pointing directly toward the corner, and then hold the heading for a short period of time. While the first few attempts will not be perfect, this practice forces the beginner to think about exiting the turn very early in the turning process. The first goal will be to exit each turn with the plane pointing directly into a corner.

Once they master this (turning left on the right side and right on the left side), I have them reverse the direction of the figure eight. This forces them to make more difficult turns (turning right on the right side and left on the left side. Since the student must keep from flying over the pits, turns must be made in a timely manner. This tends to put a little more pressure on the student.

Figure eights are excellent for heading setting practice because you (the instructor) can easily monitor the beginner's progress. You will be able to tell if the student is catching on or still having problems. As long as the student has truly mastered step one and can consistently make smooth level turns, the two most common problems a beginner has at this stage is one, exiting too early, or two, exiting too late. If exiting too early, the student must turn again to eventually get the heading they want. If exiting too late, the student will overshoot the desired heading and have to turn back. Both of these problems lead to over controlling the airplane. Talking the student through the first few turns can help with each of these problems.

If they have either of these two problems, stress the importance of being able to begin exiting the turn slightly before the desired heading is reached. The more gradual the turn, the easier exiting should be. By the way, this is the reason we said during step one that you should keep the student from turning too radically. While radical (very severe) turns may be easy for the student to master, when it comes to setting headings, radical turns are very difficult to exit in a predictable manner and lead to over-controlling.

Once the student has mastered figure eights (in both directions), I have them practice on what I call free form turns. Based on the position of the airplane at a given time, I'll call the turn I wish them to make. For example, if I say "45 degrees right", I expect the student to veer off to the right on a new heading 45 degrees from the start. If I say "180 degrees left", I expect a complete turn to the left. This practice forces the beginner to fly the plane in new and different attitudes, and commonly turns up trouble spots (attitudes and positions in the sky with which the student is not yet comfortable). We all had trouble spots as we began flying (even some experienced fliers still have some trouble spots). For those areas the beginner has trouble with, I give more practice. But at the completion of this practice, the beginner should be able to control the plane in almost any position in the sky!

[Again, let me digress. This is about the point in the training when I force the student to think about trim settings. They have pretty much mastered the ability to keep the plane in the air when the plane is perfectly trimmed. I like to see the student get some practice with an out of trim airplane. On their slave transmitter, I'll reach over and throw the aileron or elevator trim slightly off center. The beginner will be forced to determine what is wrong and correct the trim problem. Once I've started doing this with a beginner, I'll repeat trim setting practice on the first flight of each practice session.]

Holding headings and flying with precision: Once the student has mastered figure eights and free form turns, you must stress the importance of being able to hold a heading. Even the most stable airplanes tend to wander from set headings based on wind direction and velocity. The student must be able to keep the plane going in a given direction. This must be mastered before they will be able to land. (During the final approach, the beginner must be able to hold the plane right on the middle of the runway all the way to the ground!)

For practice, once again I begin with the figure eight. But this time I have the student extend the straight legs of the figure eight, forcing them to hold the heading for at least 100 ft at the completion of each turn. They must practice making minor corrections as the plane tends to wander from its desired heading. Stress that the direction and amount of wandering will vary almost every time, based on wind speed, wind direction, and the planes attitude at the completion of the previous turn. They must always be ready to apply these minor corrections in order to hold headings. The eventual goal of this practice is to make perfectly shaped figure eights with the crossover right in the middle of the flying field. Once mastered, the student can truly fly the airplane with a great deal of precision.

Once they master the extended figure eights (in both directions), I have them fly a pattern that takes them right down the middle of the runway (still quite high of course). One way to do this is have them fly a long oval shape with the near side of the oval right on the middle of the runway. Have them practice holding the heading on the runway for the entire length of the flying field. Be sure to reverse the direction of the oval in order to have them practice equally between left and right patterns.

What about throttle settings? - Most of the practice to this point has been at one throttle setting. As stated during step one, most students find it easier to fly with a throttle setting that is just strong enough to keep the plane in the air, making for a docile flying airplane. However, before progressing to step three, I recommend having them fly the plane at different throttle settings. When they decrease the throttle, the plane will become less responsive, simulating how a slightly under-powered plane will respond just after take off. As the throttle is increased, the plane becomes more responsive, simulating how an over-powered plane will behave during take off.

A note about rudder coordinated turns: - If you wish to teach rudder coordinated turns, this would make an excellent time to do so. Use hand motions to help explain that the rudder can be used to help keep the nose up in a turn. As the plane banks in one direction (with aileron), the rudder can be used as a kind of elevator. The steeper the bank, the more influence the rudder will have. [It may help to demonstrate this by performing a knife-edge maneuver with your sport airplane. In the knife edge, while the plane is banked ninety degrees, the rudder control does affect the plane as the elevator normally does.] As the beginner gives aileron and the plane banks, opposite rudder can be given to counteract the natural tendency for the nose of the plane to drop. Keep in mind that most trainers will turn quite nicely without rudder control. In fact, the influence of rudder may make it quite difficult for the beginner to master turning. They may not even notice any difference if the rudder control surface is small. For this reason, I usually omit rudder coordinated turns from basic flight training. While I do mention and describe them, I usually wait until the beginner has their first sport airplane to have the beginner practice them, when the rudder will have more of an impact on the quality of turning.

When are they finished with this step? When the beginner has mastered the ability to fly the plane under complete control at all times, when they can fly the airplane in virtually any attitude, when they have gotten all of the left/right, up/down mistakes out of their system - and when they can set and hold headings, flying with precision - then their ready to progress to step three, making takeoffs.